Months of Metadata: A Student Assistant Perspective

contributed by Wesley Martin, CCHP student assistant.

-The R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers included thousands of photographs taken during their research studies, which involved teaching American Sign Language (ASL) to chimpanzees. In this blog, CCHP student assistant Wesley Martin gives his perspective on making photographs from the second study (1972-1981) available to researchers. For an overview of the Gardner papers and processing, visit the blog, “An Inside Look at Processing a Collection“.

Student assistant Wesley Martin, 2023

My role in making this collection accessible was to upload the photos and their corresponding information (metadata) to our digital repository. Interested researchers can now browse the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner still images and access the digitized photographs through keyword searches. The process was sometimes challenging, but the great thing about looking through the Gardner photos is that any stress is quickly relieved when you see their cute little chimp faces! 

Moja, in Beatrix T. Gardner’s lap, signs possible but unclear “DRINK” to R. Allen Gardner’s cup, 1973. Box M8131, Folder 6.

Moja signs “FRUIT”. Beatrix T. Gardner signs “TOOTHBRUSH”. R. Allen Gardner on left, 1975. Box M8131, Folder 25.

Another unique aspect of this collection is that the Gardners had a very consistent, standardized process for logging the major details of every photograph. Each photograph was given an identification number that was written on the back, and the description log data corresponds with these ID numbers. Their research content in general is massive; the archival boxes of materials take up just over 93 linear feet of shelf space, or 282 boxes.

Before my task began, a fellow student assistant Amelia Pier, transcribed the Gardners’ written photo descriptions into a digital spreadsheet. Another student assistant, Maggie Mahaney, scanned all the photographs and saved them into digital folders for me to pull from. The delegation of those specialized roles allowed me to focus on less tasks, streamlining the metadata creation process. An additional bonus is that I did not have to create my own original metadata descriptions for many of the photos, as the Gardners and/or research assistants wrote their own descriptions while observing the chimp behavior.

However, there were still hurdles to my task. I occasionally came across a folder where photos had no ID number written on them, and I had to flip through the Gardners’ log to match the descriptions with what was going on in the photos. This was time-consuming, especially if the chimps were signing. Another aspect that slowed the process was the few hundred photos that did not have descriptions, or had descriptions that were full of syntax errors or insufficient information. That is where I created most of my own original metadata.

Something that was difficult at first yet became easier was identifying the chimpanzees. At first I was always asking Assistant Processing Archivist Emily Gainer who was who. This was particularly an issue when they weren’t wearing any clothes. I learned that Dar had larger, folded ears; Tatu had white hair on her face; and Moja had darker skin around her face–although these traits were harder to observe in them during infancy (save for Dar’s ears).

Moja eats with a spoon at lunch time, 1975. Box M8132, Folder 1.

Infant Dar’s hand grasping adult human hand, 1976. Box M8127, Folder 76-8A.

Infant Dar, 1976. Box M8134, Folder 11.

Moja giving a bottle to Tatu, April 1976. Box M8127, Folder 76-4A.

Although these photographs give us a primary window into what the Gardners’ research looked like from their eyes, my greatest fascination has been seeing the pure joy on the faces of the human companions when interacting with these animals. It was more than just research: it was a series of close, emotional bonds between humans and our closest living relatives–an opportunity so rare that, as an anthropologist-in-training, it makes me envy.

Beatrix T. Gardner holds Moja up by the arms, 1973. Box M8131, Folder 4.

Beatrix T. Gardner tickles Moja, 1973.
Box M8131, Folder 4.

Moja and Tatu leaping on duct (play), 1978. Box M8128, Folder 78-1C.

Beatrix T. Gardner signing to Moja: “YOU”. Moja signing: “FOOD”, for bagel, 1978. Box M8128, Folder 78-10E.

Dar signing “GO” with Beatrix T. Gardner, 1979.
Box M8129, Folder 79-1B.

I have included images in this blog that made me smile throughout the process.

To access materials in the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, contact our CCHP reference archivist at ahap@uakron.edu.

Chimpanzee Collaboration: The Gardners and Jane Goodall

contributed by Emily Gainer, Assistant Processing Archivist/Special Collections Librarian.

Through thorough record-keeping, the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers document two studies relating to teaching American Sign Language (ASL) to five cross-fostered chimpanzees over 15 years. Yet, the papers also document the humans involved in the Gardners’ lives and research. One of these stories is that of Jane Goodall, primatologist and anthropologist, who is considered the world’s foremost expert on chimpanzees.

Jane Goodall stands between Beatrix T. Gardner (left) and R. Allen Gardner (right) at the Gardners’ ranch in Reno, Nevada, circa 1990s.
Box M7992, Folder 13

Jane Goodall stands between Beatrix T. Gardner (right) and R. Allen Gardner (left) at the Gardners’ ranch in Reno, Nevada, circa 1990s.
Box M7992, Folder 13

Early correspondence between Jane van Lawick (Goodall) and the Gardners references their exchange of information, most notably the similarities and differences between wild chimpanzees and the cross-fostered chimpanzees in the Gardner studies. In a letter written by van Lawick in January 30, 1969, she thanks the Gardners for sending copies of their daily logs about the chimpanzee Washoe. She also writes, “So often during my years of acquaintance with the chimps here I have been certain, within myself, that they have a true sense of identity. Yet it is not possible to prove it in the wild. Your observations of Washoe’s reaction to her mirror image and responses to questions asked are particularly revealing.” The entire letter (below) is filled with observations of wild chimpanzees and demonstrates the sharing of information between these three researchers.

Box M8013, Folder 3

A few months later, Beatrix T. Gardner referenced Goodall’s work in her research notes. During Project Washoe (1966-1970), daily logs were kept to document Washoe’s activities, moods, diet, and ASL communication. The handwritten entry dated July 24, 1969, includes a drawing of a chimpanzee on the back of a crouching human. Beatrix wrote underneath this drawing, “W [Washoe] loves to jump up and down, stiff-legged on Dr. G [Gardner]’s back. Pulls him forward into appropriate position. This is like photos of attack in Goodall’s book yet W. does it with extreme merriment.”

Box M8043, Folder 7

The relationship continued in what would become an important experience for the Gardners. They travelled to Goodall’s field station, Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania. The Gardners made this trip during August 1971, which was after Project Washoe ended in 1970 and before the second study began with the chimpanzee Moja in 1972.

August 7, 1971: “Here we are at Jane Goodall’s field station waiting for the chimps to come.”  When discussing traveling to the station by train: “It took us a lot longer to get here than planned…And no room left in 1^st class so we had to go 2^nd class (there remained still a 3^rd class below that). We did have one piece of luck in that Jane G. herself had come into Dar es Salaam (our starting point in Africa) on business so we had a most distinguished traveling companion. We left Dar es Salaam at 5:30am on Wednesday and got to the field station at 11:30am Thursday. But most of the trip was interesting and even exciting.”

R. Allen Gardner to his mother, May (Box M8013, Folder 2)

The Gardners not only took handwritten notes (below) identifying the wild chimpanzees and their behaviors, they also filmed parts of their Gombe experience on 8mm film (above). The clip includes their living environment, which Allen described to his mother in a letter dated August 13, 1971: “At night we sleep in a thatched cabin with a gorgeous view of Lake Tanganyika.”

Box M8134, Folder 16

After returning from Gombe, Beatrix wrote a thank you letter to Jane van Lawick Goodall. This letter, dated September 14, 1971, summarizes the Gardners’ experience but also includes reflections relating to Project Washoe. Beatrix writes, “we missed our Washoe tremendously…and we wished we could have been as nice as her own species about discipline and reassurance” (below).

Box M8013, Folder 4

Contact with Goodall continued after the Gardners completed their chimpanzee studies in 1981. Goodall visited the Gardner ranch in Reno, Nevada (see photographs above). The original photographs are not dated, but they appear to be taken in the early 1990s. Goodall also wrote to Allen in 1995 expressing her condolences after hearing of Trixie’s unexpected death while on a speaking tour in Italy.

Box M8013, Folder 3

In addition to Goodall, the Gardners corresponded and collaborated with a number of primate researchers, including Roger Fouts, Keith Hayes, Winthrop Kellogg, William Lemmon, Francine Penny Patterson, Duane M. Rumbaugh, Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, and Herb Terrace. The Gardner papers also document the sometimes contentious relationships between them. As Sue Savage-Rumbaugh writes to Trixie Gardner in 1994, “I feel very badly that somehow all of us in the field of ape language got off on the wrong foot with each other and that we didn’t do as good a job as we could have as scientists of helping and sharing with one another.” She continues, “it’s really hard to work with apes and it’s really hard to know for sure everything that they can do.”

Box M7999, Folder 3

The story of Jane Goodall and the Gardners is one of the many gems found in the 282 boxes of archival materials of the Gardner papers. The R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers finding aid and over 3,400 still images are available through our online repository. To access materials in the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, contact our CCHP reference archivist at ahap@uakron.edu.

An Inside Look at Processing a Collection: The R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner Papers

-contributed by Emily Gainer, Assistant Processing Archivist/Special Collections Librarian.

In 2022, the Archives of the History of American Psychology received nearly 500 boxes of papers, films, photographs, and computer hard drives and disks from the estate of R. Allen Gardner. These papers document the Gardners’ unique research on communication with cross-fostered chimpanzees. This is one of the largest collections we have received at the Archives and it provides an excellent opportunity to see how our whole team collaborates in the intake and processing of any given collection that arrives on our loading dock.

The R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers are now open for research. CCHP staff and student assistants have digitized and made over 3,400 still images from this collection available.

History

R. Allen (1930-2021) and Beatrix T. (1933-1995) Gardner started Project Washoe in 1966. During this study, the Gardners cross-fostered the chimpanzee Washoe and taught her to communicate using American Sign Language (ASL). Washoe was raised in a trailer in the Gardners’ backyard in Reno, Nevada. The study ended in 1970.

Washoe signing “flower”, 1968. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8061, Folder 4.

Washoe signing “please”, 1970. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8059, Folder 11.

Washoe exiting her trailer, 1970. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8060, Folder 1.

Washoe and Beatrix T. Gardner, 1970. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8060, Folder 10.

Washoe and R. Allen Gardner, 1970. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8060, Folder 7.

In 1972, the Gardners began a second study. The study is less well-publicized, but possibly of greater scientific significance. The Gardners began with days-old chimpanzees, carried out rigorous testing and documentation, and worked with human companions fluent in ASL. The second study involved a total of four chimpanzees over nine years. These cross-fostered chimps, raised at a ranch in Reno, included:

• Moja who lived with the Gardners from 1972-1979,
• Pili who lived with the Gardners from 1973 until his death in 1975,
• Tatu who lived with the Gardners from 1976-1981, and
• Dar who lived with the Gardners from 1976-1981.

Moja, 7 years old, 1979. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8130, Folder 79-9A.

Pili and Beatrix T. Gardner looking at picture/stimuli books, 1975. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8131, Folder 21.

Infant Tatu, 1976. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8133, Folder 10.

Tatu and R. Allen Gardner, 1978. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8128, Folder 78-7A.

Dar and human companion, Jim Rimpau, 1978. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8128, Folder 78-1C.

Tatu signs “Gimme” to Dar, who drinks from canteen, 1980. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8130, Folder 80-11B

Dar signing “Food” while looking at a bread slice pictured in a magazine, 1981. From the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, Box M8130, Folder 81-3A.

Processing timeline:

Spring 2022: Donation of 496 boxes from the Gardner estate arrive at the CCHP.  Rhonda Rinehart and Emily Gainer appraise, sort, rebox, and move materials to storage.

September 2022: Emily begins archival processing, which involves organizing, preservation rehousing, and creating a finding aid to make these materials open to researchers.

Winter 2022: Emily identifies series and organizes 300 boxes into those categories. Further appraisal is performed with consultation from Cathy Faye.  Student assistants help with refoldering, labeling, and reboxing materials.

Spring 2023: Series identification and organization continues. Preservation rehousing continues. Jon Endres begins organizing and digitizing approximately 400 reels of film.

Summer 2023: Student assistants begin digitizing and creating metadata for 3,000 photographs and slides. Jon begins assessing electronic files stored on hard drives, USB drives, CD-ROMS and other storage devices.

Fall 2023: Emily organizes the files within each series and arranges them chronologically and/or alphabetically. Emily begins writing the finding aid. Students continue metadata for photographs and slides.

October 2023: The finding aid is complete. Materials are made available and open to researchers.

Emily Gainer begins processing by pulling boxes and identifying the contents.

Student assistant Dillon Piorkowski rehouses and labels the daily logs of Moja. The original plastic binder is replaced by an acid-free folder.

Student assistant Adam Lapham rehouses and labels hundreds of chimpanzee photographs. The original envelopes are replaced with acid-free folders and paper interleaves.

Student assistant Wesley Martin creates metadata for about 2,000 photographs relating to the Gardners second chimpanzee study.

Student assistant Maggie Mahaney digitizes and creates metadata for over 700 slides of Washoe.

Looking back on this project, it is clear that processing an archival collection of this size and scope is a time-intensive team effort. From accessioning to rehousing, digitizing, organizing, and describing, the entire Archives staff and many student assistants contribute to making the collections we receive every day available to researchers. To access materials in the R. Allen and Beatrix T. Gardner papers, contact our CCHP reference archivist at ahap@uakron.edu.

Reflecting on My Semester in the Archives

contributed by Museums & Archives Certificate Program student Katie Gable

The first film in the Night at the Museum trilogy came out in 2006 and my family rented it from the local Family Video shortly after its DVD release in 2007. Six-year-old Katie watched that film and never let it leave her mind. She knew she would somehow be involved with museum and archival work and fifteen years later, she made this dream a reality.

Though the people in the pictures I looked through never came to life (I attribute that to lack of movie magic), I was given the opportunity to tell their stories and bring them to life through my capstone project.

This project has been an incredible experience. Not only was I given the opportunity to work in the Archives of the History of American Psychology, but I worked under the guidance and in the company of some of the most knowledgeable staff members here.

I spent this semester working as a true archivist would, using the finding aid, searching through boxes, and going down rabbit holes. Though the work often felt tedious, with lots to sort through and many searches leading me to dead ends, I was able to accomplish a lot. An accomplishment I am most proud of is the identification of Indian professors and researchers Pars Ram and H.P. Maiti. My first blog post goes more in depth to this process, but as I reflect upon my achievement, I start to understand how amazing this discovery was. I explained that I was unable to find any photos of these men on the internet, despite being able to find photographs of some of their colleagues. With my discovery people doing future research will be able to know what these men looked like thanks to what I found in the Murphys’ still image collection. This is almost unfathomable to me, a 22-year-old, who has always been able to google anything she wanted and find the answer. With this discovery I am contributing to the answers.

I am also extremely proud of the stories I was able to tell with these images, specifically the stories of the two refugee camps that were studied. To be given the opportunity to go through these photos and understand a fraction of what the Indians in these refugee camps were going through was an extremely heartfelt and gratifying experience. I was able to find photos of the Hindu gods and goddesses they were worshiping and told me about how they were feeling and for what they were praying. By going through these images, I was able to visualize the research they were gathering about social tensions.

Gardner and Lois B. Murphy papers, box M7482, folder 14

Gardner and Lois B. Murphy papers, box M7482, folder 12

This semester I was given the opportunity to learn about and become an expert in a topic using primary sources, something very few people get the chance to do. I am beyond grateful for the ability to tell the story of the Murphys and their trip to India using physical firsthand documentation.

When I was assigned this capstone project, there was an emphasis on storytelling. The still images related to the UNESCO study in India in the Gardner and Lois B. Murphy collection tell many stories about a country trying to piece itself back together, researchers and scholars banding together to fix social tensions and heal the trauma they collectively experienced, refugees trying to start again after being displaced, and many other tales of perseverance and community. My hope is that even though I am finished with this project, myself, or someone just as curious, will revisit and be able to capture all the stories I was unable to share. Until then, I hope the research I conducted is enough to help other researchers in their understanding of the Murphys, Indian Partition, or any other relevant topic I was able to address.

“America is Suffering from an Outbreak of Psychology”

Written by Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr.

“America is Suffering from an Outbreak of Psychology.” Those words were written in 1924 by Stephen Leacock, Canada’s Mark Twain.  Leacock wrote in the March issue of Harper’s Magazine:

In the earlier days this science was kept strictly confined to the colleges … It had no particular connection with anything at all, and did no visible harm to those who studied it…All this changed. As part of the new researches, it was found that psychology can be used…for almost everything in life. There is now not only psychology in the academic or college sense, but also a Psychology of Business, Psychology of Education, Psychology of Salesmanship, Psychology of Religion… and a Psychology of Playing the Banjo…For almost every juncture of life we now call in the services of an expert psychologist as naturally as we send for an emergency plumber. In all our great cities there are already, or soon will be, signs that read “Psychologist – Open Day and Night.”

(Leacock, 1924, pp. 471-472)

Although we are not sure that there was a Psychology of Playing the Banjo, psychology was a very popular topic in 1920s America as evidenced by hundreds of books and magazines on the subject, as well as psychology clubs that were formed in most large cities and in many smaller ones.

There were at least 15 popular psychology magazines that began publication in the United States in the 1920s.  These included such titles as Herald of Psychology, Mind Power Plus, National Brain Power, Personality, Popular Psychology, Practical Psychology, Self-Realization, and Super-Psychology: The Mind Culture Magazine.

Brain Power, Sept. 1923; Herald of Psychology, April 1923; Golden Rule, Nov. 1927; Dawn, Feb. 1928

Many of these magazines were published for only a few years, and some even less than a year.  The most popular magazine began monthly publication in April, 1923, a little more than a century ago.  It was titled Psychology: Health  Happiness Success. Its founder and editor was Henry Knight Miller (1891-1950) a Methodist minister in Brooklyn, New York, who, after recognizing the popularity of his self-help sermons, decided to leave his pulpit and launch a new magazine. Miller, echoing the popular writers of his time, touted the value of scientific psychology for health, happiness, and success. He wrote:

In Psychology magazine we have been applying the principles of scientific psychology to the actual problems and needs of human life. We have sought to build up a sound synthetic psychology, taking what is valid from all schools of psychological thought, simplifying it in expression and applying it to the problems of personal life.

(Miller, 1923)

Miller believed that there was much value in the new scientific psychology of the universities but that psychology professors were not writing about their work in such a way that the public could find it useful.  So Miller vowed that he would take the most useful of this science and translate it into language that could be easily understood and prescriptions that could be followed to achieve the health, happiness, and success that his magazine promised. In actuality there was very little of scientific psychology that found its way into the pages of Miller’s magazine. Academic psychologists did not write for this magazine, nor did they write for the other popular psychology magazines of the time.  Very few of Miller’s authors had any higher education degrees in psychology.

Two issues of Miller’s magazine: August 1923 and October 1927

A July 1930 issue of Miller’s USA magazine and a February 1939 cover of a similar magazine that he helped found in Great Britain in 1937. Miller is shown on the cover.

When the stock market crashed in 1929, the public euphoria of the 1920s gave way to the Great Depression that had profoundly disastrous consequences both economically and psychologically. Psychology received some negative press in the 1930s from writers who were especially critical of the field, noting that psychologists had plenty of advice to offer during the heady times of the 1920s, but now in times of trouble, they were conspicuously silent. One might assume that the public lost faith in psychology as well, and that the psychology magazines would disappear. Yet the message of psychology’s value for self improvement, for the betterment of one’s life, was evidently well engrained in the public’s psyche. These were times when psychology was needed more than ever. And even though two or three dollars might not be an insignificant sum for many Americans down on their luck, it was a small price to pay for a year’s subscription to a magazine that might put them on the road to economic and psychological recovery. At least two dozen new American magazines began publication in the 1930s with “psychology” in the title, for example, Current Psychology and Successful Living, Practical Psychology Monthly, Psychology and Inspiration, and Self-Help Psychology.

Four American popular psychology magazines that began publication in the 1930s

One of the tactics used by the popular psychology magazines was designed to increase circulation of the magazines and often to sell other products, typically books and pamphlets that were associated with the magazine. In the 1920s, psychology clubs emerged in cities all over America. In fact, there were some in existence in the previous decade, but in the 1920s their numbers expanded considerably. The magazines sought to establish ties with the various clubs. If all members of a club agreed to purchase subscriptions to a particular magazine, then the magazine would be sold at a discount to all members. Further, the magazine included a regular section that reported “news” from the psychology clubs, which gave visibility and publicity to the activities of the clubs while cementing the magazine–club relationship. Miller’s magazine was particularly successful in building such relationships. Some of the larger clubs met in some kind of meeting hall, but most were small in membership and typically met at someone’s house. Programs usually featured a lecture (rarely from a psychologist) and discussion, or discussion of a book or article. Miller was a great organizer of the clubs in America and often traveled to larger cities speaking at joint meetings or conventions of the clubs. Based on the entries in magazines, these clubs may have been composed equally of males and females in the 1920s, but by the 1940s, membership was heavily female.

Below are portions of two entries from Iowa psychology clubs that were published in Miller’s magazine in the 1920s.  The nature of these clubs might be compared to modern book clubs where all members would read the same book or article and come together for a discussion, or hear a lecture on some psychological topic.

All of these images are taken from the magazines that comprise the Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. Popular Psychology Magazine Collection which is housed at the Cummings Center for the History of Psychology.  The collection contains more than 3,500 magazines from 150 different titles, ranging in date from 1844 to 2020.  On the Cummings Center website, you can find the covers and tables of contents for 3,375 magazines that have been entered into the online database. These magazines represent a broad and rich tapestry of how psychology has been presented to the public, and have proved to be an important resource for projects for students and research for scholars.  

Of course popular psychology magazines still exist today, most notably Psychology Today, which began publication in 1967, and Scientific American Mind, which started in 2004, a magazine that because of its affiliation with Scientific American, is predictably very scholarly.  And you can find these popular psychology magazines in most countries around the world.

The Story of Two Refugee Camps in Photographs Following the Indian Partition

– contributed by Museums & Archives Certificate Program student Katie Gable

In 1950, married pair of American psychologists Gardner and Lois B. Murphy went to India to help solve social tensions between Hindus and Muslims. Using funds allocated to them by UNESCO, they assembled six teams of researchers who were headed by Indian psychologists, professors, anthropologists, and more. Each team used informal interviews to gather research on the cause and effect of the tensions and Gardner Murphy used this research to write In the minds of men: The study of human behavior and social tensions in India.

In my previous blog post, I explained that the Murphy’s went to work in India for UNESCO following decolonization with the goal of rectifying social tensions between Hindus and Muslims. While that is technically true, it is a bit of an oversimplification of the state of India at that time. To better understand the work Gardner and his teams did, we must better understand India’s history of colonization of decolonization.

The Indian Partition is one of the most heartbreaking events in the country’s history. When Great Britain relinquished control of the subcontinent in 1947, the celebration of independence was quickly overshadowed by the horror of partition. Great Britain relied on the “divide rule” to cause conflict between the major religions in India in order to gain power. So concerns over a civil war post decolonization led the British government to haphazardly “solve” the problem before officially leaving. Knowing religious tensions would be the number one cause of war, they decided to divide the land into a Muslim majority country– Pakistan, and a Hindu majority country– India. Relying on outdated census maps, law lord Cyril Radcliffe carved out these borders. These borders were kept secret until Britain officially left the country leaving their former subjects to navigate these new borders. 

The Indian partition resulted in the uprooting, devastation, and death of many people. If you were of the wrong religion living in the wrong place, you were forced to flee. The road for both Muslims and Hindus on their way to the correct side of the border resulted in 1 to 2 million deaths from starvation, disease, or religious violence. It also resulted in tons of refugees who received little support from the government (TRT World, 2020).

The UNESCO study was about more than just social tensions between different religions; it was meant to examine and resolve the social and religious upheaval created by Great Britain. Gardner and his teams set out to understand not just the tensions between Muslims and Hindus, but also the trauma of being displaced and separated at the hands of a government that provided  no help to those forced to live under the new partition. 

When I began going through the still images in the Gardner and Lois B. Murphy papers I came across multiple folders with photographs labeled “India” and “UNESCO”, but initially decided they were not useful as they appeared to be random photos from random villages that did not include the names or pictures of researchers I decided to highlight. However, following my research on the Indian Partition, these photographs became exceedingly important. They were from the sixth UNESCO study, B.S. Guha’s anthropological and psychological look at the plight of refugees from Pakistan.

Guha, an anthropologist, was the first Indian to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard and established the anthropology department at the University of Calcutta (Sarkar, n.d.). During the Murphy’s research period in India, B.S. Guha was serving as the director of the first anthropological survey of India, so he was very interested in examining refugees and their camps. Guha wanted to understand how their existence factored into the tensions between Muslims and Hindus. 

The camps we have photos of are Jirat and Azadgarh and both refugee camps filled with Hindus from what became Pakistan. Jirat was a camp resettled by the government while Azadgarh was a camp of “self-settlers” or “squatters.” Though both camps were results of similar situations and both lacked help from the government, life and outlook there was very different according to Guha. Jirat refugees were completely destitute and had to build their town from scratch, excavating roads, building houses and more. Azadargah refugees settled where “well-to-do” Muslims had previously lived, moving into the houses and jobs that were left behind. Though the camps of people were both suffering from tension issues, Guha and his team labeled Azadgarh “high-morale” and Jirat “low-morale” (Chatterji, 2007). While both situations are unfortunate, I can understand based on images I found in the Murphy collection why you would label these camps based on morale.

In the Azadgarh folders you can see photos of quality standing structures and even a young girl playing an instrument and smiling.

Gardner and Lois B. Murphy papers, box M7482, folder 12

Gardner and Lois B. Murphy papers, box M7482, folder 12

In the Jirat photos, the camp looks crowded and refugees look exhausted from having to build their own homes, excavate their own roads, and more.

Gardner and Lois B. Murphy papers, box M7482, folder 14

Gardner and Lois B. Murphy papers, box M7482, folder 14

Partition impacted every aspect of life. Even Pars Ram, the star of my previous blog post’s archival mystery, was asked to leave his long-standing position at Lahore University that following decolonization became a part of Muslim majority Pakistan (Murphy, 1953). During a meeting with reference archivist Lizette Barton and executive director of Cummings Center Dr. Cathy Faye, they asked me to try and understand the personal motivations for involvement with this study. While I have yet to find any specifics, I think it is clear that the concern over not just social tensions but understanding and coping with the trauma of partition was of utmost importance to these Indian scholars. This was something they had to live through and then deal with the after effects of.  Maybe they were not directly impacted, maybe they were, but they saw what was happening to their country and recognized the urgency to identify and rectify these problems. 

References

Chatterji, J. (2007). “Dispersal” and the Failure of Rehabilitation: Refugee Camp-dwellers and Squatters in West Bengal. Modern Asian Studies, 41(5), 995–1032. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4499809

Murphy, G. (1953). Our UNESCO Mission to India. In G. Murphy, In the minds of men: The study of human behavior and social tensions in India (pp. 11–26). Basic Books/Hachette Book Group. https://doi.org/10.1037/11234-002

[TRT World]. (2020, August 14). India-Pakistan partition explained [Video]. Youtube. https://youtu.be/OnTYLyNUPMc

Sarkar, J. (n.d.). Short Biography of Biraja Sankar Guha. Your Article Library. Retrieved May 2, 2023, from https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/short-biography-of-biraja-sankar-guha/41678

Voices of Sexology: Grace Verne Silver, Marriage, and the “Modern Youth”

– contributed by Tony Pankuch.

Next week, the Cummings Center will launch its newest exhibit, Sexology: Science & Sensationalism, which explores the 50-year run of Sexology magazine (1933-1983), a sex science publication sold to popular audiences as “The Door to Sex Enlightenment.” I’ve had the pleasure of helping to supervise our current cohort of Museums & Archives Studies Certificate students in researching, curating, and designing this exhibit, and along the way I’ve been fascinated by Sexology’s contents—a unique blend of science, opinion, advice columns, and tabloid fodder. 

Sexology’s contributors came from a wide variety of backgrounds and included some genuine icons in the history of sex science – folks like Harry Benjamin, a pioneer in gender-affirming care for transgender people, and Wardell B. Pomeroy, who co-authored the famous “Kinsey Reports” with Alfred Kinsey and Clyde Martin. But for every recognizable author, there are numerous others whose contributions have attracted little historical attention. This blog is the first in a series spotlighting Sexology’s lesser known (but equally interesting) contributors.

Grace Verne Silver (1889-1972) was among Sexology’s earliest authors, writing numerous articles for the magazine throughout the late 1930s. Since its inception, the magazine had placed a focus on the issue of sex education, generally arguing in favor of honest, open discourse about sex and sexuality. Through her contributions, Silver helped to bolster this argument. Take, for example, her 1937 piece, “Sex Ignorance Is Criminal.”

“Knowledge gives happiness as well as power; nothing but misery ever grows out of ignorance. This is as true of marital relations as in any other human affairs. Women need knowledge even more than do men. In the first place, men get knowledge—of sorts; in the second place, women pay higher for their mistakes and suffer more from their own ignorance than do men. As to what women have suffered because of man’s ignorance—in addition to their own—that is beyond any computation!” – Grace Verne Silver, Sexology 5(1), September 1937.

In the above article, Silver emphasized the importance of sex education for young women, writing that “much suffering could be prevented if women were told a few simple things before their marriage.” This interest in the wellbeing of women (and the harms inflicted upon them by men) was a hallmark of Silver’s writing for Sexology.

“Marriage is not the proof of man’s love, but the proof of his desire for exclusive ownership, and may or may not have anything to do with love. Usually it also proves he wants a housekeeper and nurse. Women know that the ‘security’ offered by marriage has been much overestimated.” – Grace Verne Silver, Sexology 4(9), May 1937

Silver’s contributions to Sexology were only a minor piece of her overall legacy, however. In addition to advocating for sex education and feminist causes, Silver was a prominent socialist and labor activist who lectured around the United States. According to her daughter, she opened the first socialist bookstore in Los Angeles, which was raided three times by members of the American Legion. She was once arrested on charges of assault and battery after a fight broke out during one of her speeches. Her occupation—openly listed as “Socialist Lecturer” on her daughter’s birth certificate—was a dangerous line of work during the Red Scare of the late 1910s.

Despite her contentious views, Silver established a positive working relationship with Sexology’s first editor, David H. Keller. Keller edited several magazines at this time, and Silver’s contributions were featured regularly throughout his publications. In 1937, Silver’s writing appeared in all 12 monthly issues of Sexology.

“There is a theory that a girl’s husband should be her instructor. How shall he teach what he does not know? Men, as a class, know even less about the intimate life of women than women know. Men have learned much that is not true, much they need to forget when they marry.” – Grace Verne Silver, Sexology 5(2), October 1937

Silver’s views occasionally contradicted those of her editor. Her 1938 article “Normalcy of Petting” was prefaced by a note from Keller, which cautioned readers that “the Editor must express disagreement with many of the writer’s opinions, although full approval of the concluding paragraph.” In this article, Silver defended the practice of “petting” between young men and women, once again adopting a feminist perspective on the subject. “Personally,” she wrote, “I’d rather see a girl discover a man to be a cad before she married him, than have her wait to learn it later.” 

“When young people indulge in experimental petting, one of two things must happen sooner or later: they will find they have made a mistake, that they do not care enough for each other to risk marriage, and ‘call it off’; or they will find their love intensified, their longing to be together will overwhelm them, and they will want to marry.” – Grace Verne Silver, Sexology 5(8), April 1938

Though Silver’s contributions to Sexology appear to have ceased in the early 1940s, her writings undoubtedly helped the magazine to establish a voice in its early years. Sexology, at its founding, was a fairly radical publication, inciting controversy as it brought taboo subjects to popular audiences. It’s not surprising that a lifelong activist well-versed in political censorship would be among the magazine’s earliest contributors.

Silver’s legacy has lived on partly due to her daughter, Queen Silver. Queen followed in her mother’s footsteps and began lecturing publicly at just eight years old. She was a vocal atheist, socialist, and feminist whose young activism reportedly inspired Cecille B. DeMille’s 1928 feature film The Godless Girl. Queen’s free-spirited nature likely owes a lot to her mother, whose Sexology articles consistently defended women’s rights and the bold new ideas of the “modern youth.”

“Twenty-seven years ago, I elected to become a free and single mother. Neither I, nor my now fairly successful grown daughter, have ever had reason to regret the step. Starvation at times; hard work at other times; some minor criticisms in the early years, when there were fewer ‘moderns’ than nowadays. Under similar conditions, I would repeat the venture; I hope my daughter would have courage to do likewise.” – Grace Verne Silver, Sexology 5(4), December 1937.

The papers of both Grace Verne Silver and Queen Silver are held by the Duke University Libraries in Durham, North Carolina and are open for research. But if you’d like to explore Grace Verne Silver’s contributions to Sexology magazine right here in Akron, Ohio, drop by the Sexology: Science & Sensationalism exhibit, opening May 2. We’ll be featuring three of her articles among the 80+ issues of Sexology magazine on display.

And keep an eye on our blog in the coming months for more posts about the little-known writers of Sexology magazine!

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References

Kirsch, J. (2000, November 1). This Hometown Girl Radical Fought Many a Battle on the Soapbox. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-nov-01-cl-44988-story.html

McElroy, W. (2011). Queen Silver: The Godless Girl. Prometheus Books.

Silver, G. V. (1937, May). Woman’s New Sex Freedom. Sexology, 4(9), 4-7. Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. Popular Psychology Magazine Collection, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Akron, OH.

Silver, G. V. (1937, September). Sex Ignorance is Criminal. Sexology, 5(1), 4-7. Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. Popular Psychology Magazine Collection, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Akron, OH.

Silver, G. V. (1937, October). Sex Ignorance is Criminal (Part Two). Sexology, 5(2), 4-7. Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. Popular Psychology Magazine Collection, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Akron, OH.

Silver, G. V. (1937, December). Motherhood Without Marriage? (Part Two). Sexology, 5(4), 4-7. Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. Popular Psychology Magazine Collection, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Akron, OH.

Silver, G. V. (1938, April). Normalcy of Petting. Sexology, 5(8), 496-500. Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. Popular Psychology Magazine Collection, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Akron, OH

“Why Don’t More People Label the Backs of Photos?” and Other Thoughts Working in the Archives

– contributed by Museums & Archives Certiftcate Program student Katie Gable

I am in my final semester of undergrad and every so often I reminisce fondly on my time at The University of Akron. In four years, I have earned two degrees, my first in political science, the second in psychology, and a certificate in Museum & Archives. The skills I have learned inform my understanding of this project I have taken on.

To officially receive my certificate, I must complete a capstone project. Dr. Cathy Faye, executive director of the Cummings Center for the History of Psychology and Lizette Barton, a reference archivist in the Archives of the History of American Psychology  presented to me the story of Gardner and Lois Murphy, a pair of psychologists who worked with UNESCO in India in the early 1950s. The goal: figure out the point of their trip, piece together the story and characters through photos in the archives, and eventually digitize and create metadata for the primary sources and photos I found. This project was perfect for my skill set. Expanding upon my knowledge of important psychologists and their work, improving upon my archival skills to solve “mysteries” and of course digitize, and lastly challenging my understanding of political and social tensions worldwide.

To summarize, Gardner and Lois Murphy were both well respected psychologists by the time they visited India. Gardner, who focused on social psychology, was an obvious pick to lead the UNESCO study, which focused on social tensions between Hindus and Muslims, following decolonization. After about a year of correspondence between Gardner and UNESCO’s social science head Robert Angell, arrangements were made for Murphy to spend a year in India working with Indian government officials, psychologists, anthropologists, university students, and more to gather data about the tensions being experienced (Murphy, 1953). However, Gardner would not agree without ensuring his wife, Lois B. Murphy, a child psychologist, could accompany him. In a letter to Angell, Gardner does not ask, but rather tells him that Lois should accompany him. He emphasizes Lois’s  intentions to return to India insinutating that he could later join her on to “check up” on his initial UNESCO work.  Lois was offered to be a consultant for the B.M. Institute of Child Development. During her time in India, she visited over 30 schools, orphanages, and organizations of all levels throughout the country (Murphy, 1967). As such, many of the photos I have come across in the archives so far are of young Indian children, some playing games, others sleeping, and my favorite image of a young girl holding a cat.

It could just be my bittersweet emotions towards graduating this May, but the research I’ve done thus far reminds me of being on a yearbook committee. Gathering photos of people and places, attempting to identify them, attempting to understand the cliques or rather groups that worked together. Even assigning superlatives, Lois and Gardner obviously winning “cutest couple” (I will now be holding my boyfriend to Gardner’s standard, expecting to be brought along on business trips, no questions asked). From the moment I realized these photos were not well labeled, I made space in my notes for a “UNESCO Yearbook” where I placed confirmed images of important people and places associated with the UNESCO study and compared them with photos from the archives.

The photo that inspired me to use the yearbook analogy for my research is a group photo of Gardner and some Indian men. The back is labeled with the name Pars Ram. I recognized that name from my research. Professor Pars Ram ran one of the six research teams assembled by Murphy for the study. His team was in charge of the Aligarh University study.

Gardner and Lois B. Murphy papers, box V40, folder 2

But which one of these men is Pars?

I turned to google to search his name to find any photos or information in general on him, but it’s scarce. I assume the lack of information can be attributed to the fact that he passed in 1952, a year after the study. So instead, I turn to the process of elimination. Maybe if I create a spreadsheet, no– a yearbook, of the “MVPs” in this study, important names that reoccur in the research, I can use the process of elimination to determine which one is Pars Ram and hopefully identify the other three men as well.

At the bottom of my notes, I list out every important name I have come across in my preliminary research. Out of around 20 names, I can only match 9 to photos I have been able to find on the internet. These photos on the internet are not necessarily trustworthy either. In some cases, I can only find one image of a person online and I have to hope for now that it is accurate. I laugh as my organization of these headshots and their names and titles in bold looks exactly like the staff directory page in my high school yearbook.

Desperate for answers, I decided to email Aligarh University to see if they can send me any more information about Pars Ram and hopefully a photo. Unfortunately, I received no response. Though my questions regarding this group photo still plagued me, I returned to the archives. Using the finding aid to identify any boxes with sources or photographs relevant to my research, I finally came across another photo of interest to me. It looked like a bit of an action shot, not posed like the one before, but even still I recognized the man. That man stands beside Gardner Murphy in the group photo. I turned the photo over, doubting it is labeled, but to my surprise, it is. In curly cursive is his name, “Pars Ram”!

Gardner and Lois B. Murphy papers, box V61, folder 3

Just when I thought my excitement was at an all time high, I came across a photo of another Indian man, characterized by his glasses and snazzy suit. This man is also in the group photo, I am certain. I compare the group photo with the individual photo to confirm. I turn it over and once again I am surprised to see it is labeled “H.P. Maiti”. I am now working extra hard to keep my excitement at a whisper level in the reading room. H.P. Maiti, is another important name I was unable to identify using online sources. Professor Maiti, the director of The Institute of Psychology Research and Service  at Patna University also leads one of Murphy’s research studies.

I have now identified two out of the four men positioned beside Gardner Murphy in the mysterious group photo. That leaves me with two more men to identify! Unsure of where to start, I refer to the initial group photo, which is labeled with the word “Lucknow” in addition to other scribbles and Pars Ram’s name. It must be referring to Lucknow University, another school involved with Murphy’s six team UNESCO study. This must be where the photo was taken and leads me to assume one of the two remaining men are Dr. Kali Prasad, the head of the Lucknow Study. However, similar to his peers, photographs of Prasad are not easily found on the internet.

I return to the archival boxes to find two folders, one of which has numbered photos from the UNESCO trip, the other descriptions of the numbered photos. I decide to read through the descriptions first, to see if there is anything that is of relevance to my research. Photograph 170’s description includes the name of Kali Prasad and I open the photograph folder full of hope and excitement, only to find those numbered photos end at 150. Disappointed and puzzled, I ask Lizette where they might be. A major aspect of working in the archives is processing collections. This means surveying, organizing, and creating finding aids. This work requires reevaluation and as a result boxes are reorganized, and folders rehomed. The Murphy Collection has been reorganized and so Lizette suggests I trace the two folders I found in the box back to where they may have been kept before. As of today, I have yet to find the photo of Dr. Kali Prasad or any images of him in general. However, I am not willing to give up just yet.

This is certainly more effort than my yearbook editor ever put in and I recall the spelling mistakes and incorrect labels that littered my senior yearbook. Good thing this is a capstone project that determines if I graduate certified in Museum & Archival studies and not an actual yearbook. With that in mind, I continue to scour the internet and archives.

References

Murphy, G. (1967). Gardner Murphy. In E. G. Boring & G. Lindzey (Eds.), A history of psychology in autobiography, Vol. 5, pp. 253–282). Appleton-Century-Crofts. https://doi.org/10.1037/11579-010

Murphy, G. (1953). In the minds of men: The study of human behavior and social tensions in India. Basic Books/Hachette Book Group. https://doi.org/10.1037/11234-000

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The More You Know…

– Contributed by Rhonda Rinehart

Back in December we posted about a future Cummings Center building assessment being funded through an NEH grant. We were hopeful about this knowledge-gathering journey we were about to take, looking toward collections care and the significant part that the building will ultimately play in that role. After three whirlwind days learning about the bones and the guts of our building and how to make it healthier and stronger, we are preparing to make some changes.

Jeremy Linden from Linden Preservation Services spent three days onsite to get to know not just the building, but the collections, the staff, and even typical Akron weather patterns. The goal was to provide information about how all of these elements work together to create our current preservation environment. The assessment focused mostly on the basement where the majority of Cummings Center materials live. But to know what’s going on in the basement we needed to know what’s happening outside and around it as well.

Jeremy Linden illustrating cooling and heating zones in CCHP basement

Linden’s illustration of southside structure of basement storage

The two central points of focus were the heating and cooling systems within the building and the basement foundation, or ‘envelope’. We learned how the building mechanical systems are configured, how they communicate with one another and with the university’s physical facilities staff, and the pathways individual HVAC units take throughout the building to provide CCHP spaces with our unique heating and cooling needs.

In addition to proper heating and cooling, archival storage spaces also require appropriate humidification and de-humidification for optimal collections preservation. How all of these components correspond to create the building’s interior environment led to the biggest surprise of Jeremy’s visit: how we handle our heating, cooling, and humidity in the basement has a direct impact on moisture coming into the basement walls. If the difference between interior and exterior environments is too great in an underground environment, moisture pressure or vapor is created as it moves through the walls to the lowest point. The telltale signs of this event are mineral salts, called efflorescence, on the walls from moisture left behind. Vapor pressure also causes spalling, or deterioration of the wall’s coating. So we need to be careful about how the basement environment reacts to our heating, cooling, and humidification efforts into the future.

White mineral deposits on basement walls due to efflorescence

Spalling as a consequence of vapor pressure

The good news is that we can take concrete steps toward short and long term improvements based on Jeremy’s findings. We’ll begin with a basement envelope study which will evaluate the condition of the building’s foundation and provide information on improving the basement environment.

Tools of the trade – thermal camera, moisture meter, temperature and relative humidity meter

Thermal imaging to detect water leaks, moisture seepage, and structural integrity of a CCHP basement pipe

Spending three days learning about the environment that we work in and care for our collections in was a significant move toward improved collection stewardship. Thanks to the NEH grant, we know more than we did before about our building and its systems, and we feel more confident in our journey forward.

We are excited about our next steps. After completing the building envelope study, we are planning a design study that will guide a significant renovation to the Archives of the History of American Psychology. This will guide us in future renovations that will provide our unique collections with a home with room for growth and the capacity for state-of-the-art preservation.

An Archival Scavenger Hunt

contributed by CCHP student assistant Wesley Martin with an introduction by CCHP reference archivist Lizette R. Barton

INTRODUCTION

I’m excited to have Wesley working here in the archives as our newest student assistant. One of my favorite things about him? He’s never taken a psychology class. Not one. I think this will make his work here at the CCHP even more fun. He’s going to learn about reference work and all things archives AND the history of psychology. Woohoo!

AN ARCHIVAL SCAVENGER HUNT

Hello readers! My name is Wesley Martin, and I am a new reference student assistant here at CCHP. As a senior studying anthropology, I felt it was only fitting to enroll in UA’s Museums and Archives Studies Certificate, which is taught at the Cummings Center. It was not long before I realized I want to dive further into learning about archives work—which is exactly why I am here!

My first assignment on the job was to go on a scavenger hunt in the archives. The objective was for me to figure out how our collections are organized so that I am better equipped to find things during my time here. I caught on pretty quickly. Right away, I figured out what letters belong to book/periodical call numbers–and I learned how easy it is to skip past what you are looking for if you do not look carefully! Looking for Calkins’ An Introduction to Psychology was hard: I quickly realized books are housed in the reading room and in the basement (I later learned that there are often copies in both). Another item had me stumped. I decided to search the archives for a Soviet war songbook I found in the online repository. I could not figure out why I could not find it in the basement or in the reading room only to learn there is additional storage in the postcard room on the fourth floor!

There was a lot of content I very much enjoyed looking through. One asylum report I found, “Annual Report of the State Lunatic Hospital at Harrisburg, PA” from 1886 made me realize just how much medicine has changed in the last 137 years. I was particularly surprised at the tables reporting the supposed “causes” for illness which included innocent activities like masturbation, “novel reading,” exposure to the sun, and excessive studying. Even more surprising was the level that was unknown with 933 cases assigned no known cause. It really emphasized how much was still not understood about our mental health.

Asylum Reports, Box 62 (RC445 .P4 H31)

My search also brought me to a book recalling interviews with English sociologist Herbert Spencer, including some in which he reflects on his feelings about America. Spencer is famous for his theory of Social Darwinism and for having coined the term “survival of the fittest.” Despite having strongly opposed public relief systems, like those that gave assistance to the poor and unhoused, his interviews demonstrate a strong view of Americans’ dwindling freedom. He argued that America has to get worse before it gets better. Criticizing the illusion of freedom using voting ballots as an example, he said, “but his hand is guided by a power behind, which leaves him scarcely any choice.” Although I don’t necessarily agree with his worldview, I was intrigued by his criticisms.

Herbert Spencer on the Americans and the Americans on Herbert Spencer : being a full report of his interview, and of the proceedings of the farewell banquet of Nov. 11, 1882 – E168 .S746 1883

One last cool item I found is the “Children’s Apperception Test (Human Figures).” This was developed by Leopold and Sonya Sorel Bellak as an analysis of children’s’ mental states. It worked by having a child respond to pictures and then analyzing their responses by using a score-based guide to what certain responses meant. For example, when measuring a child’s level of “isolation,” the child would be given a score of 1 (detached attitude) if they responded with something like, “that couldn’t happen. It’s a cartoon.”

Cummings Center Tests, Cabinet 2, Folder title: Children’s Apperception Test

I have found pleasure in walking through the stacks on special missions, and I am excited to do more of it.